It is noteworthy that most of the ivory carved in India actually came from the Portuguese colonies in Africa. African ivory was much preferred by the Indian craftsmen since it was less brittle and could be carved with more detail. Thousands of tusks were imported annually by the end of the sixteenth century. The trade with Europe included decorative objects and furniture as well as religious statues. Small caskets were often either made entirely of ivory or included ivory decoration.
The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade played an important role in the history of religious art in ivory. Not only raw material boarded the galleons but finished pieces as well, making it possible for beautifully carved ivories to be imported into and exported out of the Philippines. Portuguese Macau and Goa produced beautifully crafted Christian pieces that still reflect the Asian artistic identity. Both of these aforementioned regions have ivory carving traditions predating Christianity, acknowledged for their significant contributions to colonial art in ivory.
Under the direction of Portuguese missionaries, large quantities of ivory sourced from their East African colonies came to be used to carve ecclesiastical statuettes at local workshops by indigenous artisans. Art and artefacts played a pivotal role in their endeavor to disseminate the Christian faith. They built churches and directed local artisans in the making of thousands of Catholic images in wood and ivory — some in large sizes for walls and altars, others small and compact to serve as portable icons that the evangelists could distribute.
The Jesuits in particular approached the making of such artefacts in a spirit of collaboration with the local population. While they brought iconographic images from Europe to serve as references for the indigenous artisans, most commonly in the form of prints, they welcomed stylistic interpretations from the existing cultures of India. This led to the distinctive rendering of common figures such as Jesus, Mary and the Christian saints in sculptural styles local to the subcontinent, drawing from ancient treatises such as the Shilpa Shastras as well as Hindu, Buddhist and Jain religious images. It is for this very reason that the Jesuits were actually accused in the 18th Century in Rome. Various Jesuit missions also recorded the production of Christian statuettes in ivory in the imperial workshops of the Mughal emperor Akbar around 1580–1595.
The influence of Indian traditions can be seen in a lot of sculpture. The treatment of the drapery, which is often rigid, as well as other details, such as the rendering of hair in the form of waves and curls, further testifies this.
Chimbel artists Vaman Zo family
The Zô family from Chimbel has long been recognized for their exceptional craftsmanship, particularly in the art of carving across diverse materials. As descendants of the Chari community, they migrated from Maharashtra to Goa many years ago, with one branch of the family settling in Chimbel. Although many members of the Chari community are skilled in carving, the Zô family distinguishes itself through the creation of intricate furniture and statues representing saints and deities. Their artistry has earned them respect and support from both the church and the local aristocracy. A significant highlight in their legacy occurred when Kashinath Vaman Zô captivated Manuel António Vassalo e Silva, the final Governor-General of Portuguese India, with his ivory carvings. The Governor-General was so impressed by Kashinath’s talent that he facilitated his enrollment in a course in Portugal to further develop his skills.
Kashinath’s son, Santosh Zô, upholds the family legacy today, with a primary emphasis on woodworking. His artistic creations are widely appreciated in numerous homes throughout Goa, celebrated for their detailed designs and superior craftsmanship. Nevertheless, the family encounters various obstacles, particularly in acquiring high-quality wood, such as rosewood, which is vital for their furniture and altars. Furthermore, their dependence on intermediaries has frequently restricted their profit margins, while insufficient marketing efforts have limited their market reach. Santosh’s sons, Mihir and Munil, are equally passionate about woodworking. Mihir, who manages a regular job alongside assisting his father, is committed to safeguarding the family’s traditions and expertise. He proposes innovative strategies to improve efficiency by incorporating modern machinery in the initial phases of production and implementing targeted marketing for their unique offerings.
Mihir emphasizes the necessity of adapting to contemporary changes while safeguarding our cultural heritage. He envisions a shift towards full-time engagement but encounters financial obstacles in obtaining costly equipment, with expenses amounting to lakhs. Mihir remains optimistic about obtaining assistance through various initiatives and aims to establish dependable and consistent wood suppliers. Additionally, he is investigating the possibility of repurposing wood to mitigate supply issues. Looking to the future, Mihir aims to promote the Zô brand of intricately carved furniture to enthusiasts around the globe, ensuring that the craftsmanship and skill are duly recognized. Although there is a steady stream of work, the emergence of online sales and ready-made furniture has introduced new market dynamics that the Zô family has yet to fully navigate. 'We must leverage the online market to expand our reach', Mihir states.
Mihir, now a father to a young son, is resolute in his commitment to transmit the family's esteemed legacy to the fourth generation. He emphasizes, ‘This endeavor transcends mere tradition preservation; it is essential to guarantee that the artistry and craftsmanship are acknowledged and appreciated in the contemporary marketplace’.
Bone sculpture closely resembles ivory sculpture in appearance. While it bears a striking similarity to ivory, it is significantly more affordable. Despite the visual likeness between ivory and bone, they can be differentiated by their density; ivory is denser, resulting in bone sculptures being lighter in weight.
Did you know?? A hard white substance that is a variety of dentin, ivory makes up the tusks of such animals as elephants, walruses, and preserved mammoths. It is prized for its beauty, durability, and suitability for carving. In ancient times it was treasured as highly as gold and precious stones. Most ivory used commercially once came from Africa, but this trade declined in the 20th century as the populations of African elephants shrank, and increasing worldwide concern about endangered elephant populations led to bans on the export and import of ivory. African ivory remains white no matter how old it gets, while Indian Ivory tends to develop a yellowish patina over time.
Muslim-Christian dialogue at the Mughal emperors' court.
This dialogue was initiated by Emperor Akbar, who reigned from 1556 to 1605, and it led to significant artistic exchanges during the early modern period.
In 1556, Akbar learned that two Jesuit priests in Bengal had denied forgiveness to converts who had committed various fraudulent acts concerning government tax collections. The integrity of these priests impressed Akbar, prompting him to invite Father Julian Pereira from Bengal for a meeting. Following this encounter, he expressed a desire to gain a deeper understanding of Christianity.
In 1578, Akbar dispatched two ambassadors to Portuguese Goa, accompanied by a letter requesting the presence of two priests well-versed in scripture. This era witnessed a rich exchange of ideas, during which Goan carpenters acquired the art of inlay using ebony and ivory from Muslim craftsmen.